Public Goods Essay Example for Free

Public Goods Essay We are very much familiar with this line â€Å"I believe the children are our future, teach them well and let them lead the way†. Children are considered the hope of every nation for they will soon become our leaders. We all want our children to get everything they deserve to get, receive fair treatment and have high quality education because this will help them contribute to the welfare of the society, they are a good investment. But not all parents have the capacity to provide even the most basic needs of their children. Sometimes we wish children were just valued as a public good. A public good is a term used by economists to refer to a product (i. e. , a good or service) of which anyone can consume as much as desired without reducing the amount available for others. ( Public Goods: A Brief Introduction). Myra Stober suggested in her article that children must be raised and guided collectively so the nation as a whole will benefit from them not just their parents. If that happens, equality among children can be accomplished and the nation will prosper a lot from them. However, if this will be implemented it can lead to market failure where uncoordinated markets driven by parties working in their own self interest are unable to provide these goods in desired quantities. (Wikipedia) Considering children as a public good is only an alternative and should not be considered the best solution because is not the best remedy to proper child care. Meeting their needs cannot be done in a snap because it takes a lot of consideration to do so. Works Cited The Linux Information Project (LINFO) â€Å"Public Goods: A Brief Introduction† Web . 16 Feb 2006. 29 July 2010 http://www. linfo. org/public_good. html Public Good. Wikipedia. org. 29 July 2010. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Public_good

Trespassing In Cyberspace Essay Example for Free

Trespassing In Cyberspace Essay Introduction This paper will focus on one of the most contentious issues in cyberlaw, such as trespassing in cyberspace. While the issue of trespass as a sort of offense against a person or against property is carefully regulated in the majority of jurisdiction, the question whether trespass as a phenomenon can actually exist in cyberspace is a subject of heated debate. Thus, in-depth analysis of this question will help to understand its significance in the broader context of cyberlaw. Definition Under common law, trespass happens when a person intermeddles or performs unauthorized of another person’s property (Quilter, 2002). Pending the consensus among scholars concerning a clear-cut definition of trespass in cyberspace, courts and researchers often have to apply reasoning by analogy to analyze such cyberlaw cases: ‘The concept of trespass in cyberspace depends heavily on a conception of a web site or mail server as ‘property’ from which, like land, the owner ought to have the right to exclude others’ (Merges, Menell Lemley, 2006, p.928). One of the concepts that is most widely applied to cyberspace trespass cases is the concept of trespass to chattels, chattels being is defined as tangible property (not to be confused with real property and intellectual property). Trespass to chattels is a tort action under certain circumstances: ‘The tort of trespass to chattels traditionally requires proof not just that the defendant ‘intermeddled’ with a chattel, but that the defendants use actually caused injury to the chattel or injured the owner by depriving it of the benefit of using the chattel’ (Merges, Menell Lemley, 2006, p.923) However, the latter thesis is a contentious one, and further discussion of this issue will happen in the ‘Notable Cases’ section. The scholars argued that there are many concepts than need careful legal reconsiderations in the Information Age before any analogies with real property or chattels can be brought into the discussions. These concepts include, but not limited to, the notion of Intent, Entry, Property, and Permission (Adida et. al., 1998). Yet the idea of applying the doctrine of trespass to chattels to cyberspace turned out to be surprisingly appealing to judges: ‘Notwithstanding scholars’ early suggestions of its inappropriateness, courts have rushed to resurrect the late, largely unlamented, tort of trespass to chattels, and apply it to the new cyberspace arena’ (Cranor Wildman, 2003, p.13). At present, most scholars agree that the doctrine can be applied to such issues as spam and spidering when actual orb potential harm has been caused to a plaintiff. Legal Basis The foundational document that governs electronic transactions is Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984 (CFAA). Computer Fraud and Abuse Act such issues with data integrity as in the situation when an offender breaks authorization rules instituted by an organization with a view to gaining access to protected information, such as information contained in a financial record of a financial institution, or of a card issuer. It also established penalties for acts or attempts to encroach on secret governmental information. However, the applicability of this Act can be made possible by proving that data and information resources can be regarded as chattels. Nowadays, it is an accepted fact in the legal practice, which was established by a series of legal precedents. Notable Cases In Thrifty-Tel v. Bezenek, it was established that electronic signals can be regarded as property due to the fact they are physical and tangible in nature. The analogy used in the case was the comparison of electronic signals to real property not chattels. Trespass to chattels first appeared in the case CompuServe v. CyberPromotions, which was a span case (Quilter, 2002). In United States v. Seidlitz, confidential software was illegally obtained by an employee by tapping into the work session of a previous worker. In this case, federal law was applied only because of an accompanying circumstance. Several  telephone calls the employee made to accomplish his aim were made across state lines.  Otherwise this employee would have had to be prosecuted under one state’s wire fraud legislation (Adida et. al., 1998). In United States v. Langevin, ex-worker of the Federal Reserve Board committed a similar offence. Being a financial analyst at the time when the offence was perpetrated, he tried to access the file containing protected data on money supply. Again, the applicability of federal legislation was made possible solely because of telephone calls made in the manner similar to the previous case (Adida et. al., 1998).    Another notable case, Intel v. Hamidi, was won by the defendant as the California Supreme Court ruled that Ken Hamidi did not commit an act of trespassing Intel’s computers by sending messages to its employees. After being fired from Intel in 1995, Ken Hamidi sent six emails to thousands of Intel’s employees with bitter criticism of the company’s policies and employee treatment. These messages did not result in physical damage on the company’s computer systems or failure of its networks or computer services. However, Intel decided to press charges against Mr.Hamidi accusing him of trespass. Intel claimed that workers were distracted and distressed as a result of disappointing emails, which further led to loss of productivity: ‘Intels position represents a further extension of the trespass to chattels tort, fictionally recharacterizing the allegedly injurious effect of a communications contents on recipients as an impairment to the device which transmitted the message’ (Epstein, 2004, p.15). Yet the court sided with the defendant on the grounds that no actual harm has been caused to Intel’s computer system: ‘The California courts have rejected trespass to chattels claims in the absence of evidence of actual harm to the chattel in question the computer server†¦ because the trespass to chattels tort†¦may not, in California, be proved without evidence of an injury to the plaintiffs personal property or legal interest therein.’ (Merges, Menell Lemley, 2006, pp.925-926). The significance of this case lies not only in the perceived victory for those who endorse cyberspace rights and fair labor relations. The case established a standard for legal reasoning in the cases of the like nature: ‘The decision noted that calling distressing content of a message a ‘trespass’ on the computer was as wrong as claiming that ‘the personal distress caused by reading an unpleasant letter would be an injury to the recipients mailbox, or the loss of privacy caused by an intrusive telephone call would be an injury to the recipients telephone equipment’’ (Electronic Frontier Foundation, 2003, para.3). The case eBay, Inc. v. Bidders Edge, Inc. is important for the discussion because it expanded the concept of trespass to chattels to spidering. Spidering is widely used by search engines to track information on Web serves. Bidder’s Edge was an auction aggregator that collected information from different auction sites, put it together in its own data bank, and then offered the information on demand as a to consumers looking for a certain item. eBay pressed charges against this company on the basis of trespass to chattels because of the company’s spider activity. The evidence of real harm resulting from Bidder’s Edge’s spidering was not allowed in the court, but the presence of potential harm was sufficient to rule that Bidder’s Edge was trespassing eBay’s information resources (Quilter, 2002). Other cases decided on the same grounds as are TicketMaster v. Tickets.com92 and Register.com v. Verio (Quilter, 2002). Impact While there is little discussion as to the benefits of application of trespass theory to spam emails, the issue is not that clear when it comes to spidering. It is widely believed that all the recent cases concerning trespass in cyberspace had far-reaching implications. Some scholars believe that the application of trespass to chattels doctrine to spidering may be detrimental to the development of e-commerce services: ‘While the promise of ecommerce is to improve consumer information and lower transaction costs, under a trespass theory many of those benefits will disappear’ (Merges, Menell Lemley, 2006, p.924). From the customer’s perspective, eBay’s victory was hardly beneficial for those seeking quality service: ‘AuctionWatch [a website run by Bidder’s Edge] was a better product for consumers than eBay, since it covered more auctions. However, eBay succeeded in shutting it down using the trespass to chattels tort. Any type of innovative aggregation product is subject to the same problem’ (Cranor Wildman, 2003, p.21). However, arguing against the doctrine of trespass in cyberspace from the position of customer’s satisfaction is not the most effective stance. In any legal case, there is a variety of stakeholders involved. The purpose of legal settling is to satisfy the demands of a plaintiff (if they have reasonable grounds) on the basis of existing laws and regulations. Companies operating in cyberspace merit protection just like customers do. Conclusion Despite the ongoing debate on the applicability of the concept of trespass to cyberspace offences, legal practice has already legitimized the relevance of certain common law doctrines (i.e. trespass to chattels) to such cases. Following the analogy with trespass to property such as land or personal possessions, courts have decided a series of exemplary cases based on the reasoning that electronic signals are physical and tangible enough to be regarded as property. References Cranor, Lorrie F., Steven S. Wildman. Rethinking Rights and Regulations: Institutional Responses to New Communications Technologies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003. Epstein, Richard A. Cases and Materials on Torts, 8th ed. Rockville, MD: Aspen Publishers, 2004. Merges, Robert P., Menell, Peter S., Mark A. Lemley. Intellectual Property in the Technological Age, 4th ed. Rockville, MD: Aspen Publishers, 2006. Adida, Benjamin, Chang, Enoch, Fletcher, Lauren B., Hong, Michelle, Sandon, Lydia, Page, Kristina. ‘The Future of Trespass and Property in Cyberspace.’ 10 December 1998. June 19, 2007. http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/courses/ltac98/final.html Electronic Frontier Foundation. ‘California Supreme Court Sides With Email Pamphleteer: Intel v. Hamidi Decision Protects Internet Speech.’ June 30, 2003. June 19, 2007. http://www.eff.org/spam/Intel_v_Hamidi/20030630_eff_hamidi_pr.php Quilter, Laura. The Continuing Evolution of Cyberspace Trespass to Chattels. 2002. June 19, 2007. www.law.berkeley.edu/institutes/bclt/pubs/annrev/exmplrs/final/lqfin.pdf

Disabled Non-disabled Differences

Disabled Non-disabled Differences Evaluate the social model of disability as an adequate account of the ‘differences between disabled and non disabled people It has been said that the differences between disabled people and non-disabled people in western society is based on the ideology of ‘normality, implying that disabled people are ‘abnormal. Morris statesthat â€Å"disabled people are not normal in the eyes of non-disabled people.†(1991: 16) Two different models have been coined to explain how society judges disabled people. Historically, the ‘individual or medical model was composed, which implies that it is the individual who is disabled, thus it is the individual who needs to change and adapt to society through medical methods, such as surgery or rehabilitation. Critics of this model such as Oliver (1990), conclude that it was not an adequate model, as it is society who has created disability, rather than a medical condition or physical attribute. Since the ‘international disability movement in the late 1960s this ‘traditional paradigm (Watson, 2002) of disability therefore became archaic, as society has evolved into modernity, and it was seen as an inadequate account of understanding disabled people, and why they are excluded from mainstream society. Therefore expanding on the critique of the ‘individual model; a new model, based on the Marxist foundation was shaped, known as the ‘social model, which stated that it is society who imposes the disability, by creating social barriers for people with impairment. Developing on this idea that we should be able to distinguish oppression that impaired people experience and the impairments they have, thus rather than defining disability as an impairment, it is seen as a ‘social expression. (Shakespeare, 2002) The social models key element, is that it ‘distinguishes between impairment and disability; implying that an impairment is part of the individuals identity it is â€Å"nothing less than a description of the physical body† (Oliver, 1996:35) but disability is something which is socially constructed : â€Å"It tends to relocate the ‘problem from the individual to society. Disability can then be viewed as a social problem caused by social processes.† (Priestley, 2003:13) This became an adequate account because disabled people stopped viewing themselves as ‘the problem†. It has been noted that the main progression in the research for the social model supports the idea that there is no ‘causal relationship between impairment and disability (Crow, 1992). The social model states that the primary cause of ‘disabled peoples marginalisation (Barnes, 1999: 2) is the cultural and environmental structures of society. However as Crow (1992) and Shakespeare(1993) have argued that even if social barriers are removed, the impairment still remains an important aspect of disabled people lives and identities and if we fail to recognise this then we are failing to recognise the ‘subjective reality of disability. The social model has avoided the issue of impairment because: â€Å"†¦it is much better to say people are disabled by society but not their bodies, than to say people are disabled by society and their bodies† (Shakespeare, 2002) Nevertheless the social model has had some positive outcomes, it has been one of the â€Å"major catalyst for the increasing politicization of large numbers of disabled people and their allies throughout the world† (Barnes, 1999: 4). Thus giving disabled people a stance in the world of politics, with this brought about many disability movements that aided towards equality within society. Supporting this model helped society dismantle many social barriers and introduce the ‘Disability Discrimination Act (1995) to gain equality and consequently protect people with accredited impairments from unfair treatment. Barnes (1999) saw this social change a solution to eradicate discrimination and prejudices against disability. It helped explain disablement in terms of ‘social oppression, similar to that of other concepts within society: sexism and racism. This led to less exploitation and more inclusion; a noticeable difference took place in the workplace and educational system. Schemes were set up, under Blairs reign, such ‘welfare to work scheme. Introducing less demeaning benefits, this was the result of the ‘administrative model of disability, which contained a rigid definition of disability affecting the benefits that were received meaning that: â€Å"†¦it would not be uncommon for a severely disabled person being denied benefits because their impairment or disability did not fit the criteria† (French, 1994: 6). This supports the sceptical view that societys response to disability is understood through the medical model, ‘a cure or care theory. Similar to the reaction that created the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act, using the medical model of disability to create its policies, in other words Society has accepted that it was the individual who had the problem, rather than a non-accommodating environment. French (1994) further argued that it was a ‘depressing fact that structural obstacles still remained a prominent part of a disabled person daily routine; ‘built environment, transportation and the communication system. This is reiterating the theory that ‘social barriers result in ‘social oppression. â€Å"Thus it is not ‘disability that non-disabled people fear but impairment, as ‘disabled people remind non-disabled people of their own mortality† (Barton, 1997:11) This gives evidence that oppression is not only a constant struggle with the built environment, but also a relentless struggle to gain inclusion within mainstream society. Due to discrimination and prejudices that have been formed, in large part due to the medical model, it has resulted in the ‘personal tragedy theory, which gives the notion the non-disabled people feel those with impairment should be ‘pitied as they have not got a ‘fulfilling life. It is important to note here that the ‘social oppression stance does not believe that disability is the result of limitation caused by chronic illness, impairment or trauma, but the way in which we as a society categorise individuals into such groups (Barnes, 1996). A debated argument states that the difference between disabled people and non disabled people is not that we are impaired, but that we are a minority oppressed by a disabling society. (Shakespeare, 2002) The ‘labelling theory, or ‘social reaction theory as it is sometimes known (1960), is closely linked as it stated that as a society we ‘categorise individuals into certain groups and treat them accordingly. Therefore as a result to these labels, disabled people will self-prophesise to the non-disabled peoples prejudices and it will become part of their identity. This was an important issue for disabled people, as a main obstacle for both disabled and non-disabled people is ‘inclusion within society. Our society Barnes (1996) states, seems ‘pre-occupied with peoples abilities, and thus we tend to segregate both disabled and non-disabled people. This theory has a massive impact on disabled peoples life, as it has appeared to be the case that historically they are excluded from the workplace and education. With the ‘disabled peoples movement, emerged the independent living era. Normality is linked with the perception of independence and thus binary to this, abnormality must be connected to dependence (Barnes, 1999). However Barnes (1999) continues to state that even by basic necessities we are all interdependent, that is we need to rely on each other in some form, for our society to function positively. â€Å"There is no qualitative difference between disabled and non-disabled people with respect to basic human needs† (Barnes, 1999: 20). The ‘social model was widely accepted amongst disabled people as an adequate account that identified the differences between disabled and non-disabled people. Using the ‘social model, Finkelstein, 1981 argued that if non-disabled people were to be confronted with ‘social barriers then they would become ‘equally disabled, as society is not accommodating to their needs. Plus another view of this is that it is impractical to remove of social barriers from society to accommodate all, as removing obstacles for certain impairment may create more obstacles for others. Furthermore it is not possible to dismantle all barriers created, as some of them are ‘inextricable aspects of impairments and thus were not constructed by the environment. A question asked by Tom Shakespeare â€Å"if someone has an impairment which causes constant pain, how can the social environment be implicated?† (2002) An issue that has been raised is even if we take away the social obstacles to disability, the impairment and the pain still remains dominant as the social model â€Å"does not attempt to deal with the personal restrictions of impairment but the social barriers of disability† (Oliver, 1996: 39).Crow (1996) explained how the model lacks the personal experience of pain which is intrinsic with certain types of impairments. Thus from this stance society, and the environment cannot be blamed for imposing difficulties on all impaired people, because some impairment contain difficulties in their own right and these should not be ignored. For if they are, it may in fact, do more harm than good, and cause more problems for the individual. This critique of the social model does not make it an inadequate account or invalidate the paradigm, but simple states that there is need for improvement. It is not possible for our society to ignore impairments, the same as we should not be causing more problems through social barriers; Crow (1992) debates that full integration of ‘experiences of impairment, with the experiences of disability is the way forward for the social model. The fact that the model did not address the issue of ‘multiple oppression was also as a critique of the ‘social model, other social groups such as feminist have argued that the ‘social model does not take in to account other forms of oppression; sexism or racism, and thus cannot be generalised, as it does not reflect the experiences of all disabled people. Cashling (1993) seems to think that postmodernist thinkers will explain the concept of oppression within disability simply as a manifestation of societys hatred; however this ha s yet to be seen. Some sociologist has explained that the social model needs to be refined, noting that both social disability and medical impairments coexist; thus noting that people are disabled by both social barriers and their bodies. Oliver â€Å"has argued that an adequate social theory model of disability must contain a theory of impairment† (Oliver. 1996: 42) Others have stated that the ‘British social model is outdated and is no longer useful within our society and instead of redeveloping the idea â€Å"supplying alternatives to compensate for the inadequacies of the social model† (Shakespeare, 2002) it should be abolished creating space to begin again. The reason for this radical approach Shakespeare (2002) continues to state that the social model is causing more problems than it is solving and he wishes to construct a â€Å"more adequate approach to disability politics, based on materialist ontology of embodiment† (Shakespeare, 2002) . By more adequate it meant that it needs to take into account every aspect of a disabled person to truly understand and begin to eradicate discrimination and oppression, which is still an important issue for society in all aspects of social categories. For this to happen as Crow (1992) has previously stated, an understanding of pain needs to be produced and not ignored; considering tha t physical attributes of impairment and social construction of disability can coexist and that for the fight towards equality to be successful it needs to be explain that â€Å"normality† should not be classified as the majority. In conclusion it has been noted that the social model of disability has increased awareness and introduced many positive aspects to society. Such as the explanation of oppression for disabled people, giving them a stance within the political society, enabling them to create policies which help ease the problems of certain issues that have been social constructed, through previous models such as the medical model. However neither the medical nor social model creates a complete adequate account of the differences between disabled and non-disabled people because they both have flaws. Thus it would not be a positive direction for society to abolish both models, it would be more successful if they conjoined the important aspects of both models, to form a model that is able to evaluate and explain disability, impairment, and oppression in terms of discrimination, prejudices and structural characteristics of society. Creating a model that makes it possible and plausible to eliminate as much inequality for disabled people as possible. However as Shakespeare (2002) states it is evermore difficult to achieve a complete model of disability, mainly because there is no clear cut definition of disability. Shakespeare (2002) argues that we should focus more on the relationship between impairment and embodiment, rather than the ‘definitional link between impairment and disability. Therefore our main focus for the future should be to eradicate the dichotomies, and encourage more integration within society through changing architecture or benefits. It is an illusion to imply that in post modernity the possibility for all impairments to be ‘barrier free, however if we take the view that no one can do everything, everyone, even non-disabled people have flaws, but if we take into account all impairments and try to eradicate as many barriers as possible, both economically and socially, then we will be heading in the right direction for an equal society, and thus will be able to create an adequate account of disability. References: Barnes, C (1999). ‘Disability at Work in the 21st Century. In journal of ‘Critical Social Policy (Vol 20, No. 4: Pp 441-457) Barton, L and Oliver, M (eds.) (1997). ‘Disability Studies: Past Present and Future. (Pp 3-24). London: Fulton Crow, L (1996). ‘Renewing the Social Model of Disability. In Barnes, C and Mercer, G (eds) ‘Exploring the Divide.(Pp 55-72). Leeds: Disability Press Darring, T, et al (1981). ‘A life Together: The distribution of Attitudes around the Disabled. London: Tavistock French, S (1983). ‘Disability, Impairment or something In-between?. In Swain, J; Finelstein, V; French, S and Oliver, M (eds) ‘Disabling Barriers: Enabling Environments (Ch 1.2). London: Sage French, S (1991). ‘What is Disability? In French, S (ed), ‘On Equal Terms: Working with Disabled People(Ch: 1). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Finkelstein, V (1981). ‘To Deny or not to Deny Disability. In Brechin, A; Liddiard, P and Swan, J (eds), ‘Handicap in a Social World. Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton Morris, J (1991). ‘Pride against Prejudice: Transforming Attitudes to Disability. London: Womens Press Oliver, M (1996). ‘Understanding Disability: from Theory to Practice. London: Macmillan Oliver, M (1996). ‘Defining Impairment and Disability: Issues and Stake . In Barnes, C and Mercer, G (eds) ‘Exploring the Divide (Ch 3, Pp 29-54). Leeds: Disability Press Priestly, M (2003). ‘Disability: a life course approach. Cornwall: Blackwell Silburn, L (1983). ‘A social model in a medical world: the development of the integrated living team as part of the strategy for younger physically disabled people in North Derbyshire. In Swain, J; Finelstein, V; French, S and Oliver, M (eds) ‘Disabling Barriers: Enabling Environments (Ch 1.2). London: Sage Shakespeare, T(2002). ‘The social model of disability: an outdated ideology?. In journal of ‘‘Research in Social Science andDisability.(Vol 2: pp. 9-28) Stone, D (1984). ‘The Disabling State. London: Temple

Cultural Dicersity/ With References Essay -- essays research papers

Cultural Diversity in the Work Place In today’s work environment, it has become more evident and vital than ever to foster cultural diversity. Business organizations that want to stay in business are integrating their global and local business efforts along with cultural diversification. However, the path that leads to cultural diversity is not an easy one. Issues and conflicts may slow down, and even restrain, efforts to integrate cultural diversity in the workforce, but the need to embrace and make cultural diversity work is a sensible and attainable prospect. Diversity refers to all those differences that can mark human beings such as age, nationality, language; color of skin and the way people behave due to different cultural background. Prejudice is an unreasonable attitude or bias regarding those differences. Awareness of workforce diversity has been growing since the late 1980's, when the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) and the Hudson Institute published "Workforce 2000." The report predicted major shortages of labor due to a drop in the nation's birth rate during the 1960's and 70's. Because the drop in birth rate was most profound among native-born Caucasian Americans, the report predicts a major shift in the demographics of the U.S. work force. White females, minorities and immigrants will comprise 85% of those entering the work force in the year 2000. This shift will change not just employment, but also benefits, advancement and other aspects of working in America. As the workplace and marketplace continue to change, more and more companies are educating their employees on cultural diversity awareness. An understanding of the issues that arise due to the differences between gender, age, religion, lifestyles, beliefs, physical capabilities and cultures is needed to bring out the best in all of us. The creativity, flexibility and commitment gained from our interactions with other cultures and peoples will empower us all. Barbara Stern who is vice president of Boston-based Harvard Pilgrim Health Care (HPHC) argues that what has traditionally been a â€Å"soft† issue is now becoming a business necessity in terms of better serving customers, understanding markets, and obtaining full benefit from staff talents (Schmerhorn, pp.77). The issues and conflicts that affect the effectiveness of cultural dive... ...m feeling disregarded or left out, time wasted when conflicts and misunderstandings arise, and capital resources allocated on legal fees and settlements. Fortunately, today’s business organizations are increasingly recognizing the importance of a more inclusive and equitable work environment as their bottom line. When describing the need and path that business organizations require to stay competitive and successful in their local and global markets, cultural diversity will always require attention. Business organizations will not only understand and respond to the needs of its customers, but it will also ensure its survival and productive workforce. References Chen, Christine Y., Hickman, Jonathan. (2000, July 07) America's 50 Best Companies For Minorities [Online]. Reuters: fortune.com/ fortune/ diversity/ company4.html Gardenswartz, Lee Ph. D., Rowe, Anita. Human resource focus, July 1998. V. 75 N7. PS1 (3) Why diversity matters. Newstrom, J.W., Davis, Keith. (1993). Organizational behavior human behavior at work. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Schermerhorn, JR. jr., Hunt, J. G., Osborn, R.N. (2000). Organizational behavior. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Essay --

The above figure shows the annual real GDP growth and per capita GDP growth in India since 1990 til 2011. Mr Ruchir says,†As the poorest of the big emerging markets, with a per capita income of just $1500, India is hardly overachieving; it is always easier to grow fast from a low base. Since the early 1980s, when the government cut back its monopoly on most imports and started easing rules about who could manufacture what and in which quantities, India has finished each decade with an average GDP growth rate about 1 to 2 percentage points faster than the emerging market average. That is unusually consistent but not particularly impressive-its standard for emerging nations in India’s low-income class.† He talks about the decrease in manufacturing jobs in India. But a survey by Morgan Stanley shows this is the case with developed countries as well. On the IMF rankings of nations by rate of inflation, India plunged to 122nd in 2012, from an average ranking of 65 between 1980 and 2010. Sharma says, â€Å"Low inflation has been the hallmark of sustained economic success from Japan in the 1960... Essay -- The above figure shows the annual real GDP growth and per capita GDP growth in India since 1990 til 2011. Mr Ruchir says,†As the poorest of the big emerging markets, with a per capita income of just $1500, India is hardly overachieving; it is always easier to grow fast from a low base. Since the early 1980s, when the government cut back its monopoly on most imports and started easing rules about who could manufacture what and in which quantities, India has finished each decade with an average GDP growth rate about 1 to 2 percentage points faster than the emerging market average. That is unusually consistent but not particularly impressive-its standard for emerging nations in India’s low-income class.† He talks about the decrease in manufacturing jobs in India. But a survey by Morgan Stanley shows this is the case with developed countries as well. On the IMF rankings of nations by rate of inflation, India plunged to 122nd in 2012, from an average ranking of 65 between 1980 and 2010. Sharma says, â€Å"Low inflation has been the hallmark of sustained economic success from Japan in the 1960...

Proposal for Improved Raw Material Tracking Program :: Business Manufacturing

Business requirements Tracking Raw Material and Work in Process: To maintain a maximum, efficient level of raw material as well as lowest costs for production is essential for the production department. o A system which can estimate and track the optimum level of raw material reduces the cost for production procedure, o It must be able to monitor the storage level of raw material and communicate with the public demand for drugs as well. o The system should also provide a shared database between ECOLI and its suppliers, to shorten the time of ordering and delivery raw material. o Since some of the raw materials are intermediate goods buy from suppliers, the system must have a capacity which can monitor the production procedures and materials suppliers use, to avoid suppliers to charge a higher price. o The system should have a historical disease database. Since lots of important chemical materials are extracted from fossil fuel, the company needs to store extra fuel in order to handle disastrous diseases (SARS, bird flu, etc.) base on past historical trends. This storage strategy can also get rid of the risk of price increasing. o Chemical raw material has very strict requirements on surrounding environment. Thus, the system must be able to sort chemical raw material by their characters (temperature, smell, chemical property), to reduce the probability of chemical inter-pollution since they have very strict requirements on surrounding environment. o The system should records all information of raw material, including the name, purchase date, opened date and expire date, to lower the turn over rate and the unnecessary waste of raw material. o The system should have a function to monitor water quality. Drugs produced with non-sterile water is defective, and must be destroyed because they may already been polluted. Suppliers Selection Suppliers should be carefully selected based on the qualities and prices of the raw material as well as their reputation. o An information system should list all contracted suppliers and their business scopes. If one of supplier couldn ¡Ã‚ ¦t deliver the raw material on time due to unexpected reasons, the company can contact alternative supplier quickly, and the whole production process won ¡Ã‚ ¦t be delayed. o The system should records all business transactions between ECOLI and its suppliers. Suppliers who had unethical records (using expensive materials to earn profit) cannot be used again. Quality Control o In order to shorten the inspection time on outputs, the system should be able to instantly summarize the inspection results of the testing sample and keep the quality controllers informed of the most updated quality of outputs.

Criminal Justice Trends Paper

For the past 50 years, America’s criminal justice system has encountered several significant changes dealing with courts and policing. According to Marion and Oliver (2006), the historical Supreme Court rulings like Mapp v. Ohio and Miranda v. Arizona mold the way courts and law enforcement handle individuals charged with committing crimes. This paper will discuss the evolution of courts and law enforcement reflects the diverse and changing need for today’s population which is first importance, the urgency for cooperation and communication among criminal justice agencies and law enforcement within the country.Individuals must know the importance for courts and police to collaborate closely together for the goal of ensuring all laws are applied fair and equally, protect the public, and prevent crimes for all individuals. Police History Before the 13th century the primary function of justice during this century was getting revenge in other parts of the world in the same c entury made attempts to establish law and order in countries, such as Greece, Rome, and Egypt (NCWC, 2004). From 1066-1285 the Frankpledge of this time was the only system of justice in the English-speaking world (NCWC, 2004).The Frankpledge system went by another name as well its name was the tithing system, which was the same as tithing in church. This system was to take 10% of household earnings every Sunday, and a community of 10 separate households had the obligation to control its own law and order. If any man had knowledge of a crime it was his obligation to take part in things and taking part in the search of the perpetrator (NCWC, 2004). In time the tithing system world evolve into another system and its name was known as the parish constable-watch system (NCWC, 2004).The new system had a different method; the community would appoint one individual of the tithing system to serve for one-year as the constable. One duty of the constable was to employ other men in the communit y to perform duties at night; the name of this position was watchman (NCWC, 2004). These watchmen had to work in rural locations, which made up 10 things that were also known as one or 100ths would make up the shire (NCWC, 2004). Each shire community would appoint what was known as a shire-reeve or sheriff. In England around 1326 justices of the peace became the new title to replace the name shire-reeve (NCWC, 2004).One adoption of the American colonies was wholesale English policing and the rebirth of the sheriff’s position. Many of the early police departments had only two positions day and night personnel, and in 1845 many cities in American police departments were run by police chiefs (NCWC, 2004). Copying many of England’s reforms and innovations were policies the Americans would adapt for its own use. Of the many adaptations, the one to notice most (NCWC, 2004) is the Bowe Street Runner or known as the creation of the detective position in 1748 (NCWC, 2004).In 18 29 Sir Robert Peel of England wrote the first set of policing principles for the Metropolitan police department of London England. One principle was to become more proactive instead of reactive this gave birth to the patrol officer a principle American police would adopt (NCWC, 2004). Law enforcement has had many trial and errors (NCWC, 2004) in developing crime prevention programs. The best system to date is the creation of community policing, which began in the 1990s. The History of CourtsIn 1781 America became a nation with George Washington defeating Lord Cornwallis in Yorktown. One change dealing with colonial times, the United States courts has developed their own way to deal with social conscience and needs from the new nation. According to Currie (1992), the Sixth Amendment guarantees a public and speedy trial and informs all charges with a jury trial. Throughout history citizens were called to settle disputes, today’s juries are considered the hybrids of European, Ro man, Greek, and Egyptian jury practices.The jury system in America is also influence by the English jury system. Another one of America’s constitutional right is due process which is the basic for fairness that is important in the judicial system which allows our system to work with honor and integrity. According to Currie (1992), the factors of due process involve the United States Constitution; Amendments V, and XIV and in 1970 Illinois State Constitution adopted some rights for due process. For the past seven and half centuries due process was the mission of men persistent to create justice in the government.The federal courts for years used a method of suspended sentencing as a form of probation which in 1916; the Supreme Court ruled this was unconstitutional. President Coolidge in 1925 signed the Probation Act that gives the court’s permission to throw out imposition sentencing and give the defendant probation. The Speedy Trial Act was enacted by congress in1974 a t the point the United States Courts started the agency of Pretrial Service. The mission of this was to decrease crime by allowing individuals to be release into the community awaiting trial to decrease pretrial punishment.In 1982 the Pretrial Services Act was signed by President Reagan. The extending use of Pretrial Services to all federal courts started a specific milestone that we now know as Pretrial Service and Federal Probation system. As of today, officers are involved in the criminal procedure one the individual is arrested until the individual finish community regulations. Analysis of Courts and Policing Past and Present Law enforcement has gone through many challenges and changes since its inception in the 13th century.In the past 50 years to the present law enforcement has grown from just a few law enforcement agencies to many as many as 18, 760 departments with personnel amassing 940, 275, and a budget of $51 billion dollars these agencies share (NCWC, 2004). This is a c ollection of data taken in 2000 by a number of police departments in the United States (NCWC, 2004). This collection of data reports that the Justice and Treasury departments has 60 federal police departments, highway patrol has 26 departments, 23 state police departments, and Hawaii is the only state without a police department, but does have a public safety department (NCWC, 2004).In addition 35 states have other agencies with special investigative powers, which have its limits (NCWC, 2004). Throughout the United States (NCWC, 2004) Sheriff departments have well over 3, 000 department, and municipalities with well over 15, 000 police departments. The United States is the only country with many law enforcement agencies, and no one agency functions or has the same kind of departmental structure (NCWC, 2004). Much of the future of policing depends largely on the education of its personnel.The education of new recruits is essential for the way police will perform. Improving human rela tions and developing a strong sense of new technology is of supreme importance for policing in the future to become a success. Contemporary Opportunity Analysis With over 18,000 contemporary Law Enforcement agencies today designated more titles, roles, and responsibilities among its personnel depending on the jurisdiction mainly local and state police operated.Law enforcement’s maintains a leading role in controlling crime yet professionalism and ensuring due process for every person accused of a crime regardless of demographics but in today’s criminal justice system: race, age, gender, mental status, and prison over-capacity are factors affecting policy-making. As (Smith, 1990) proclaimed (â€Å"The greatest judicial pressure for police reform and professionalization came with the controversial decisions defining criminal defendants' rights during the Warren era. â€Å").Rehabilitation programs became a valuable resource and alternative to incarceration in many crim inal cases which coincide with community policing. In comparison, law enforcement and the courts have the opportunity to make changes to policies; both are policy-makers within the system with a set of rules for making decisions in which is usually the focus of a single issue (Marlon & Oliver, 2006). The new laws put in to place by the high court’s affects all players including police investigations through courts and parole in the criminal justice system because policies can be in written or verbal form and not all policies are effective.According to (Yackle, the Court's policy decisions affecting criminal justice are produced by the votes of the nine justices who select, hear, decide, and issue opinions in cases. With the demands from the public weighing heavy on the backs of the higher courts to change, enhance, block, or remove ineffective policies affects the criminal justice system as a direct result of conflicting problems or abuse of power by those in authority. Oppor tunities and Missed Opportunities for CooperationThe courts and the police have a great opportunity to work with defendants in the process from arrest to the trial if the incident goes to trial. From the adult defendants down to the juvenile defendants and with the court system down to the criminal justice system can play an important role in the process for the defendants. There are opportunities for both sides to improve on the analysis of the problem what makes the defendant do what he or she does again and again to end up in the criminal justice system, i. e. social standing or environment (Williams, 2013).When it comes to the courts and the police there should be clear goals, objectives and priorities when it comes to the process from arrest to trial and the communications between both sides should be clear. There should be improved programs and services to support the victim, the victim’s family and the defendant by the police and the courts. The main goal of the courts and the police is communications and having clear goals and the opportunities for cooperation will be there and there will not be any missed opportunities for cooperation.One complete criminal justice system working together for the improvement of the justice system as a whole, that should be the focus and the goal clearly now and in the future (Williams, 2013). Conclusion The American Colonists used the English Policing and Judicial systems as the basis to establish our own systems when they established America as a new fledgling nation. When we borrowed England’s Policing and Judicial systems many items were changed and modernized to fit our needs. Sir Robert Peel is known today as the father of modern policing around the world.His set of principles for the Metropolitan Police Force of London led to modernization and professionalization of our police forces here in America. The court system that we borrowed from England was in no way perfect, so we changed our laws with th e introduction and passage of the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and fourteenth constitutional amendments. These amendments make the American Judicial System one that focuses on Due Process and ensures that all defendants are innocent until proven guilty. Today many nations model our policing and judicial systems, which is a tribute to the American Criminal Justice System.